(Contracted Chapter for New Edition of "Unfolding Learning Societies: Challenges and Opportunities" <available at www.learndev.org>)  

MASS EDUCATION AS THE HANDMAIDEN OF GLOBALIZATION

Sometimes called 'Americanisation' of the 'rest of the world', the processes of globalisation, have amplified the modernity project manyfold, supported by mass education and communication technologies, particularly the Internet and the mass Media ('virtual colonisation'). (Gupta 2000, pp. 12-13)  Providing both opportunities and threats, its promoters argue that it is creating an improved economic climate within which educational, health and other cultural 'improvements' will thrive.  However, the economic and cultural standards by which such 'improvement' is measured mask a deeper, more far-reaching and profound cultural transgression that is emerging in the literature on the impact of globalisation. It is increasingly perceived by many non-western academics and researchers as 'a form of western ethnocentrism and patronising cultural imperialism, which invades local cultures and lifestyles, deepens the insecurities of indigenous identities and contributes to the erosion of national cultures and historical traditions'. (Lemish, Drotner et al. 1998, p. 540)  Some emancipatory opportunities will be addressed later in the chapter.  

It is well known that education is the most powerful method of enculturating (even 'brainwashing') a people.  Mass education which transplants an educational model from one cultural system (such as Euro-American) into another very different culture while retaining the original standards and categories of knowledge, is tantamount to cultural genocide.  (Nandy 2000)   

In a critique of the model of education put forward by the World Bank a decade ago at the 'Education for All' (EFA) meeting in Jomtein, Thailand, a number of educationists and social activists, cite this model as being a further attempt to assert the values and culture of the western materialist paradigm. (Jain 2000)   

In regards to the World Bank's goal of increasing 'literacy levels' the concept of literacy itself has never been contested. (Hoppers 2000, p. 18)  And yet, in the west itself, the narrow conceptualisation of literacy as the 'new supreme force' has been undergoing serious critique from some educationists and futures researchers for decades.  The overvaluing of narrowly-defined 'textual literacy' (reading and writing text) compared with broader categories of human expression (social 'literacy', oral 'literacy', emotional 'literacy') reflects the material manifestation of narrowly defined conceptualisations of human intelligence.  Although the literature on multiple intelligences, cognitive holism, the value of artistic education and oral literacy has been growing in the west for decades, it seems that the World Bank programs have overlooked their impact.  (Read 1943; Anderson 1985; Eisner 1985; Arnheim 1989; Gardner 1996)  Educational and youth futures researchers, aware of the failure of the western educational model to provide young people with confidence, hope, a sense of meaning and a love of life-long learning, are engaged in exploring alternative educational processes which transcend the narrow bounds of the three R's (reading, 'riting and 'rithmetic). (Slaughter 1989; Gidley 1996; Hutchinson 1996)  Perhaps it is time for the west to learn something from the 90% of the world's oral cultures, referred to by Ong, who primarily use symbolic systems of meaning making transfer, such as story-telling, myth and dance while they still remember how it is done. (Ong 1982)  The later part of this chapter will discuss alternative educational processes which arose in the west but which maximise such processes. (Steiner 1981)

A MONOCULTURE IN DECLINE:  CHALLENGES FROM WITHIN

The particular variety of culture that is underpinned by western scientific thought, and in recent decades amplified by the information technologies and the economic rationalist paradigm of commodification, has since the Enlightenment claimed cultural superiority.  With this self-imposed authority (at first European, now American), it has sought to 'develop' the 'underdeveloped world' using the development paradigms of 'deficit' and 'disadvantage' rather than 'diversity' as its justification. (Dighe 2000)  Yet, like all great civilisations of the past that have reached their zenith before they begin to decay, the 'over-developed' western culture, with its foundations rooted in a materialist world-view, has been for decades showing signs of decay.  The litany of symptoms exhibited by many young people of the 'most developed' nations, exemplify this with great poignancy.  Research shows that many youth of the west are increasingly manifesting high rates of depression, eating disorders and other forms of mental illness, (Bashir and Bennett 2000).  In Australia there have been increases in youth homelessness, and school truancy which have created an underclass of ‘street kids’, disenfranchised by society, yet often by choice.  Increasing numbers are committing suicide and other violent crimes at an alarming rate, and are expressing a general malaise, loss of meaning and hopelessness about the future. (Eckersley 1993; Gidley 1998)  Sohail Inayatullah refers to this as 'postindustrial fatigue'. (Inayatullah forthcoming) Most of the research on suicide and suicidal ideation show strong links with depression and also hopelessness about the future. (Beck, Steer et al. 1985; Abramson, Metalsky et al. 1989) (Cole 1989)  Western culture has recently been described by film director Peter Weir as a ‘toxic culture’, after a spate of violent school shootings by and of fellow students in the United States.  

There are several major factors inherent in the western materialist cultural paradigm which have contributed to a failure of healthy enculturation of young people.  These include the triumph of egoism over community, the manipulation of imagination, the secularisation of culture and environmental degradation. (Gidley 2000) (www.nr.org)  

·        Individualism versus Community

The current age of the ‘I’ which celebrates self-centred egoism, began in the 60s and 70s with the recognition of (and rebellion against) the injustices involved in the long-term cultural dominance of the ‘wealthy white male’.  The various movements for ‘liberation’ and human rights (feminism, gay, black and indigenous rights movements) set in motion a process where rights began to dominate responsibilities.  While not wanting to undermine the gains that have been made in terms of equity and human rights, in the process of unmoderated individualism, the needs of family and community have often been compromised.  As a result of the ensuing breakdown of families and other social structures (linked also to the shift in male-female power relationships) we are seeing an unprecedented fragmentation of the social glue without which young people are rudderless in their social orientation.         

·        The Colonization of Imagination

Over roughly the same period of time, the education of the imaginations of children and youth has changed from the nourishment of oral folk and fairy tales to the poisoning of interactive electronic nightmares.  Since the advent of TV, and Video game parlours, followed by the use of computer games (originally designed to train and desensitise soldiers before sending them off to the killing fields), western children and youth have been consistently and exponentially exposed to violent images.  Globalisation has led to the ubiquitousness of these processes and their subsequent colonisation of youth culture and imagination, globally.

·        The secularization of culture

The triumph of secular over spiritual values, coinciding with the widespread crisis of values reflected in postmodernism as a ‘belief’ system’ has resulted in a dominant world culture which although ostensibly Christian, is in practice amoral.  The egoism that brings greed in its wake, the economic rationalism that denudes politics of the principals of social justice, the secularisation of education (leading to a loss of the values dimension), the death of churches as inspiring community organizations and ultimately the cultural fascism (and religious fundamentalism) that leads to ethnic cleansing are all symptoms of societies that have lost connections with moral, ethical and spiritual values.

·        Environmental degradation

Finally the culture that has dominated the global environmental agenda, valuing private and corporate profit, over community or planet, has been responsible for the systematic and pervasive pollution of our earth, air and water.  What message we might wonder has this given to our youth? 

(Gidley forthcoming)  

EMANCIPATORY POTENTIAL OF GLOBALIZATION

Since everything contains the seed of its opposite, even whilst the  globalisation project ('Modernity Project Mark II') threatens to be potentially more damaging in its colonising and homogenising power than Modernity Project Mark I, it also holds the potential for the greatest emancipation.  It is suggested by Bhandari that what is needed is to be able to distinguish between the hegemonic and emancipatory potential of the diverse strands of modernity (Bhandari 2000).  There are several emerging opportunities that can be harnessed.  Some of these, paradoxically, co-exist within the western model itself:

·        The inherent focus on individualism in the western paradigm as discussed above, can be transformational if used selflessly, for the greater good.  Individual human agency then becomes a powerful force to counter the homogenising effects of a dominant monoculture.

·        The anti-materialist, humanist, alternative streams within the western educational and cultural paradigm that have developed in parallel with mainstream culture, become ever more active the stronger materialist culture becomes (eg the educational alternative discussed below).      

·        The networking potential of free human beings to use global networks for the common good is beginning to be harnessed.  For example, it has also enabled the authors discussed earlier to publish and circulate their book on the Internet thereby promoting their concerns about globalisation globally! (Jain 2000)  (www.learndev.org)

Processes need to be put in place which will foster the potential of globalisation to increase these opportunities to encourage diversity, and some policy, research and practical processes have been suggested by Jan Visser (Visser 2000).  

RECLAIMING WISDOM AS THE GOAL OF EDUCATION

The industrial model of education which underpins mainstream education in the West, and thereby the processes instituted by the World Bank in its EFA agenda has not only been critiqued by educationists in the developing world.  Much of the youth futures research over the past decade has demonstrated that many young people in the industrialised world have become fearful of the future, disempowered and disenchanted by the education system. (Slaughter 1989; Eckersley 1995; Gidley and Wildman 1996; Hutchinson 1996)  These futures researchers recommend more holistic, integrated teaching methods using imagination (to be elaborated later), pro-active social skills (such as conflict resolution, cooperative learning methods) and specific futures methodologies (such as creating scenarios, visualising preferred futures, action plans).

It has been strongly argued by some educational futurists that the limitations of the instrumental rationality of western scientific positivism, has rendered it as being well past its 'use-by date' [1] as a viable dominant epistemology for the future.  The 'global problematique' [2] has become so complex that the rational paradigm with its fragmented disciplines and specialisations is completely unable to cope with finding solutions.  What is needed is integrated education systems at both the school and tertiary levels which are underpinned by higher order knowledge systems and inclusive cosmologies. (Inayatullah and Gidley 2000)  These include the traditional, indigenous knowledge systems of many cultures as well as such spiritually based cosmologies as are found in the West, (for example, the underpinning philosophy of Steiner education, discussed below).  Such systems reclaim wisdom as the goal of learning and transformation as the goal of a learning society.   

While it is becoming increasingly vital that school and university education are underpinned by such higher order knowledge systems and inclusive cosmologies, this is by no means to suggest that education (and learning) are confined to schools, colleges and universities.  The industrial, factory model of education as schooling being confined to factory-like buildings for persons between the ages of four and twenty-something, must urgently be regenerated by spatial and temporal expansion into life-long learning in physical, architectural and social spaces that breathe with the community.  The creative imagination required to foster such transformations has been for too long impeded by the limitations of the reductionist school education model as we know it.  It will be shown later in this article that cultivation of imagination in education enables young people to have more positive, creative and empowered visions of the future.  This would seem to be an important step 

in creating learning societies with wisdom as their vision.  

VISIONS OF A TRANSFORMED SOCIETY

First and foremost, there would be no one ideal society, as the first premise in my vision of a transformed society would be far removed from the monocultural variety that globalisation is attempting to impose.  The critical value of cultural 'diversity' to the survival of human society as a whole, would be paramount.  This diversity would be found between cultures (for example, Chinese and Ayurvedic medicines would be equally valued with western allopathic medicine, so that genuine dialogue between practitioners could actually discover which approach best suited which situation).  In addition, the diversity would be found within cultures whereby the plurality of possible ways of knowing would be encouraged at all levels of education, including university learning.  This would involve a revaluing of the arts, the practical skills, and contemplative processes as being of equal value with the rational, in contributing to a holistic knowledge paradigm for the future.   

However, such a vision could not be implemented without great struggle.  There is much powerful vested interest in maintaining the status quo whereby the few who play monopoly with the vast majority of the world’s power and wealth cling desperately to their monocultural myth of globalisation which commodifies and homogenises all values into the economic ‘bottom line’.  In the same way that it has taken decades for the world’s scientists to admit that disregard for the environment had resulted in global warming, it may also take more decades before the grassroots visions suggested here will develop the critical mass that is needed for transformation into a learning (rather than consuming) society.  In the vision presented here, the economic bottom line would be superseded by what has become known as the ‘triple bottom line’ where the impacts of any enterprise/policy on the environment, and the social/human/spiritual ecology, are equally valued with economic impact.  

To summarise, this vision of a transformed society would no longer represent a hegemonic, linear and hierarchical, global monoculture based on the endless acquisition of fragmented 'bytes' of information, but rather, a pluralistic, multi-layered network of cultures within societies, committed to nurturing diverse, meaning-centred, integrated, wisdom based cultures.           

AN INITIATIVE THAT FOSTERS EDUCATION FOR WISDOM

On a visit I made to Nepal a few years ago, while trekking in some reasonably remote Himalayan villages, I was taken by the hand by some children when they discovered that I was at that time a teacher.  They excitedly ran me away to show off with pride their new school.  It was a dark little square room with straight rows of seats, a black-board, and some white chalk with each child having a little piece of black slate so they could ‘learn to write’.  I tried to look happy for them while inwardly wondering how is it that only the driest crumbs of the western educational model which is already failing our own children in droves, could be being offered to these lively Nepalese children.  I now wonder if this is what is meant by ‘education for all’.  And I’m certainly not suggesting that this could be improved by giving these little schools a couple of computers as well.  Having been involved for 10 years in founding, pioneering and teaching in a Rudolf Steiner school in rural Australia, I have guided numerous children from their sixth/seventh year to puberty.  As a responsible participant in their (and my) joyous learning of every imaginable subject through stories, drawing, painting, singing, movement, drama, music, poetry, mythology and play, I knew learning could be otherwise.  And surprise, surprise!  The children also became literate in the process, but not just literate in the narrow sense mentioned in the introduction, they developed what I would call broad literacies (to read for meaning, to write creatively, to share, to respect nature, to imagine world’s beyond their immediate one, to have social confidence and to love learning). 

The educational processes described here are not new, but they were reactivated for their perennial significance in a child’s education by Rudolf Steiner (1861-1924), in Europe in the 1920s.  With great foresight, Steiner already a century ago was decrying the limitations of the western materialist cultural model.  In the mode of a ‘Renaissance man’ Steiner was a scientist, philosopher and artist who contributed significantly to the fields of education, agriculture (biodynamics), medicine and the arts, lecturing and writing extensively on all imaginable subjects in the first quarter of last century.  A futurist and grand theorist, he called for science to be reunited with art and metaphysics through ‘spiritual science’.  In addition to valuing the conceptual/rational development of the child and the practical, real life context of education (also recommended by Dewey), Steiner strongly emphasised the cultivation of the imagination through aesthetic, artistic processes and highly valued the use of oral language through poetry, drama and story telling. (Steiner 1964; Dewey 1972)           

The educational movement which has grown out of Steiner’s initiative has resulted in the establishment of hundreds of schools worldwide.  Considered by many of its proponents to be an educational model, this problematic belief has become one of its weaknesses as some interpreters of Steiner’s approach can be quite dogmatic about processes.  In fact, Steiner repeatedly stated that he was not laying down dogma, but rather elucidating knowledge of the wisdom of humanity (anthroposophy).  It is my view that he intended educators working out of his teachings to be creative themselves and to reinvent the processes for different contexts (temporal and geographic).  There is still great untapped potential in this area, as the temptation is still to transplant a 19^th Century German educational 'model' into every context. 

The conceptual approach of Steiner education is an integrated approach to the development of the child as a whole.  In particular, the cultivation of the student’s vivid and healthy imagination (compared with just the dry intellect) is considered to be extremely important.   The foremost tool for this in Steiner schools is the use of story-t